KALIMAT DAN UNSUR-UNSURNYA
1. Pola Kata Dasar
Suatu kalimat (dalam Bahasa Inggris)
sekurang-kurangnya harus memiliki dua unsur dasar yang membangun konsturksi
kalimat tersebut, yaitu subyek dan predikat. Subyek adalah sesuatu yang menjadi
pokok persoalan di dalam suatu kalimat; dia adalah yang melakukan suatu
pejkerjaan, atau dikenai suatu pekerjaan, atau juga menjadi topik suatu
pembicaraan di dalam kalimat tersebut. Predikat adalah suatu kejadian atau
peristiwa atau pekerjaan yang dialami oleh subyeknya, baik dilakukan oleh
subyek tersebut atau menimpa subyek tersebut tergantung pada jenis hubungan
(misalnya, aktif-pasif) antara subyek dengan predikatnya.
Di dalam suatu naskah pidato, karangan
atau tulisan ilmiah, bisa kita temukan beberapa jenis kalimat dengan berbagai
variasi bentuknya. Namun demikian kalimat-kalimat yang panjang atau kompleks
sebenarnya hanyalah suatu perluasan dari kalimat-kalimat sederhana, atau
kalimat dasar. Di dalam
Bahasa Inggris kita mengenal pola kalimat dasar antara lain: (1) S P, (2) S P
C, (3) S P O, (4) S P IO DO, (5) S P DO prep IO, dan (6) S P O C.
1. Subject + Predicate.
The baby is sleeping.
The visitors left.
The train has arrived.
The plane is taking off.
The convict collapsed.
2. Subject + Predicate + Complement
The new car is expensive.
The man is a political criminal.
The people in the meeting are police officers.
Honesty is the best policy.
New theories often sound promising.
3. Subject + Predicate + Object
Everybody is talking about the game.
The students have just finished their assignments.
Not many people master political sciences.
The students did not understand the instructions.
Some people hate politics.
4. Subject + Predicate + Indirect
Object + Direct Object.
My friend sent me some postcards.
We borrow him some books.
They bought us a new computer.
The boy threw the dog a stone.
My father gave me some money.
5. Subject + Predicate + Direct Object + Preposition + Indirect Object.
My friend sent some postcards to me.
We borrow some books from him.
They bought a new computer for us.
The boy threw a stone at the dog.
My father gave some money to me.
6. Subject + Predicate + Object +
Complement.
We appointed him chairman.
She considered me brother.
He called us traitors.
We believe him true.
They thought me wrong.
Latihan :
Tentukan pola dasar yang digunakan dalam kalimat-kalimat
berikut ini:
1.
Laws
make everyone’s life safer and more pleasant.
2.
This
belief gave these rules a religious meaning.
3.
The
judge did not know how to condemn a thief.
4.
The
Babylonians produced the most famous ancient written laws.
5.
The
FBI gave us investigations to courts.
6.
Special
agents must be graduates of law school.
7.
The
right to a free press had successfully passed us first test.
8.
Frederick the great granted toleration for all
religions.
9.
Private
wars among the knights made life difficult.
10.
The
various ethnic groups have different cultural backgrounds.
Subject
Subject suatu
kalimat mungkin terdiri dari Noun (phrase), Pronoun (phrase), infinitive
(phrase), atau Noun clause.
1.
Laws are
rules that define people’s rights and responsibilities towards society.
2.
Indonesia faced educational problems at the
time of independence.
3.
Lawyers
have public duties beyond their individual citizenship.
4.
The principal source of income of the federal government is a progressive income tax on
persons and on corporations.
5.
Political scientists remained faithful to the constitution
6.
We tend to
forget the informal aspects of political organization and process.
7.
He wrote a
handbook on politics.
8.
Engaging in politics is not the same thing as studying politics in order to
develop principles of general relevance.
9.
Learning
is a process of acquiring cognitive, affective, or psychomotoric competence.
10.
To see is
to believe.
11.
To answer the questions of ‘what is politics’ is as difficult as ‘what is life’.
12.
That frustration and anxiety may be the cause of some violent acts is the lawyer’s defense for his
client.
13.
Whether or not he could win the case is still up the air.
14.
Why he murdered his wife is still a big question.
15.
Whether or not he will bring the case to court depends on how he perceives the
incident.
Predikat
Dalam bahasa
Inggris kita mengenal dua jenis kata kerja: (1) kata kerja biasa (ordinary verb), yang sering juga disebut
kata kerja penuh (full verb), dan (2)
kata kerja bantu (auxiliary verb/helping
verb). Sebagian besar kata kerja dalam bahasa Inggris tergolong dalam kata
kerja biasa, yang menurut infleksinya dibedakan menjadi kata kerja yang
beraturan (regular verb), dan kata kerja yang tidak beraturan (irregular verb).
kata kerja bantu atau auxalaries juga dibedakan menjadi dua: (1) primary auxiliary (to be, to do, dan to
have) dan (2) modal auxiliary (can,
may, must, shall, will, ought to, used to, need, dan dare). To be, to do, dan
to have bisa berfungsi baik sebagai kata kerja penuh (Copula) maupun sebagai kata kerja bantu.
Predikate suatu kalimat dalam Bahasa Inggris bisa terdiri hanya dari satu
kata kerja (terutama dalam Simple Present dan Simple Past Tense ), tetapi dalam
banyak tense yang lain, predicate dalam suatu kalimat diperlukan lebih dari
satu kata kerja. Predicate yang hanya terdiri dari satu kata kerja harus berupa
kata kerja penuh, kecuali dalam susunan eliptik. Predicate yang memiliki lebih
dari satu kata kerja biasanya terdiri dari satu kata kerja penuh dan satu atau
lebih kata kerja bantu, tergantung pada jenis tense yang digunakan dalam
kalimat tersebut.
1.
Some
people look on laws with fear, hatred, or annoyance.
2.
The
lawyer is a person with a very special knowledge of law.
3.
Laws
may
prevent us from doing things we wish to do at the moment.
4.
Most
of a lawyer’s work is carried on outside the court room.
5.
Lawyers
have
completed a course in a law school.
6.
In
law school, students are learning how to analyze and present
problems for decision.
7.
Lawyers
have
been taking a special field of interest after a few years in general
practice.
8.
The
lawyer, like the doctor, has been governed by a code of
ethics.
9.
Life,
liberty, and property must be protected by laws.
10.
The
man should
have been thought of innocent before he was proved guilt.
Predikat suatu kalimat harus bisa dikategorikan ke
dalam salah satu tense yang ada, dengan kata lain predikat harus disusun
berdasarkan kaidah-kaidah tense. Suatu kata kerja bentuk –ing, misalnya, tidak mungkin menduduki posisi sabagai predikat
tanpa dibarengi unsur yang lain, yaitu to
be (be, is, am, are, was, were, been, being). Begitu pula kata kerja bentuk
ke tiga atau Past Participle hanya bisa menjadi predicate jika tampil besama
dengan to have (have, has had) atau to
be. Suatu kata kerja bantu modal atau modal auxiliary tidak berhak
menduduki posisi predicate secara sendirian atau tanpa disertai suatu kata
kerja penuh, kacuali dalam susunan eliptik semacam short answer, agreements,
disagreements, addition to remarks dan sebagainya.
Complement
Dalam Bahasa
Indonesia, kalimat ‘Dia makan’ dan Dia sakit’ mempunyai pola sama, yaitu S P.
lain halnya dengan Bahasa Inggris menjadi ‘He Eats’ dan ‘He is sick’. Kalimat
yang pertama mempunyai pola S P C ( Subject + Predicate + Comlement ).
Perbedaan ini disebabkan oleh karena jenis kata yang digunakan sebagai
predicate dalam kedua kalimat tersebut berlainan. Kalimat yang
pertama memakai kata kerja sedangkan kalimat kedua menggunakan kata sifat.
Kalimat yang predicatenya tediri dari kata kerja dikenal dengan kalimat verbal,
sedagkan kalimat yang predicatenya bukan kata kerja disebut kalimat nominal.
Semua kalimat nominal dalam Bahasa Inggris menggunakan pola SPC, yaitu predicatenya berupa to be dilengkapi dengan
complement.
Complement mungkin terdiri dari Noun
(phrase), pronoun, Adjective (phrase), adverb, prepositional phrase, atau
gerund phrase.
Contoh :
1.
The
people gathering in the room are advocates.
2.
The
men that I talked to this morning are lawyers.
3.
The
judge in charge for the trial is here.
4.
The
responsibility for making safe and pleasant life is ours.
5.
The
influence of English law on the growth of law in the United States was great.
6.
The
universe would have been totally chaotic without the existence of laws.
7.
The
juries are in the courtroom.
8.
One
of the lawyer’s jobs is defending the rights of claimed violations.
9.
Something
that most people, especially in the courtroom, do not like most is waiting.
10.
One
of the most important things for the judge to consider before announcing the
sentence is why one does such and such.
OBJECT
Sebagaimana halnya
subject, object suatu kalimat bisa terdiri dari Noun (phrase), Poronun, Gerund
(phrase), infinitive (phrases) atau Clause.
Contoh :
1.
the
police arrested law-breaker.
2.
In
criminal cases lawyers either prosecute or defend public rights against the
community.
3.
The
speech that he made concerning the needs of society has bothered me.
4.
Do
you mind my interfering your affairs?
5.
He
told me much about hunting.
6.
Whatever
reason you are going to tell me, I want you to leave.
7.
The
police asked the man to tell the truth.
8.
The
lawyer asked the man why he committed the crime.
9.
The
detectives have not found who had set the fire to the building.
10.
The
poor boy did not understand that he was accused of committing a murder.
Adverb
time when
(I get up at 06.00 in the morning)
Place where (I go to campus every day)
Manner how (I walk slowly to the dean’s room)
frequency how often (I always read books to Improve my English)
NOUN PHRASE (TOEFL Ps: 269-280)
Noun phrase:
suatu kelompok kata yang terdiri dari Headword (atau kata inti), dan kata-kata
lain yang mendahuli atau mengikutinya yang membentuk suatu kesatuan.
Noun Phrase terdiri dari 3 (tiga) komponen, yaitu :
1.
Headword: kata inti yang menjadi pusat
dari kesatuan kata-kata yang mengitarinya,
2. Premodification,
(biasanya terdiri dari kata sifat dan kata benda) yang menerangkan headword,
dan terletak sebelum headword tersebut,
3. Postmodification,
yaitu kata (biasanya terdiri dari prepositional phrase, non-finite clause, dan
relative clause) yang menerangkan headword, dan terletak setelah headword
tersebut.
Contoh :
1. Noun +
Head (Noun)
Woman lawyer Government
employee
Population problem Murder
trial
Traffic regulation
2. Adjective + Head (Noun)
General + election Prosperous
countries
treacherous king dangerous maniac
political science
3. Present Participle + N
-
increasing
population ruling class
-
developing
countries amusing senators.
4. Past participle + Head
-
written
law established
ethnics
-
standardized
measurement specialized agents
-
exaggerated
rumors
5. Head +
Prepositional phrase
the nomination of presidential
candidates
power in political systems
the skill for agitating people
lawyer with excellent
reputation
people from hot climate
countries
6. Head +
Participial phrase
-
wars
causing disasters
-
rumors
leading to a social confusion
-
social
conflicts resulted by the campaign
-
new
bills proposed by the president
-
public
question embarrassing the candidate
7. Head +
Infinitive phrase
-
first
social problems to fight against
-
institution
to provide jobs
-
punishment
to evaluate
-
president
candidates to vote
Exercise:
1.
The
first requirement of good citizenship and government
2.
The
most terrifying exile penalty
3.
The
societies of the countries of western Europe
4.
A
special law governing nations and business abroad
5.
A
bad character shown by previous criminal and immoral acts
6.
The
National Crime Information
Center
7.
The
frequently changing policy system
8.
The
further complicated government corporation problem
9.
These
crude and unreliable procedures
10.
A
very special knowledge of law
11.
The
best way of testing the truthfulness of a witness
12.
A
branch of the United States Department of Justice
13.
Police
statistics voluntarily contributed by local law enforcement agencies
14.
A
meeting place established by the government
15.
The
phenomena studied by modern political scientists.
Home work:
1.
The
fashion label outside the top super-luxury brands
2.
the
mounting competition from retailers and discounters
3.
their
steady loss of market share
4.
A
typical example of this approach
5.
the
problem with the US
department stores
6.
the
right merchandise in the right quantities at the right time
7.
the
latest components of its reinvent strategy
8.
An
organization’s capacity to identify
9.
people
with apparently limitless energy and enthusiasm
10.
The financial impact of such people
11.
the agenda of the would be high performers
12.
a particularly important motivating force for
new talent
13.
another essential motivator for high
performers
14.
the time available for creative thinking and
mastering new skills
15.
the provision of a coach or a mentor
16.
A commitment to fast tracking an individual’s
development
17.
tens of thousands of other banana growers in
the Winward Islands
18.
the
most remarkable success stories of the past decade
19.
a global leader in high-quality domestic
appliances such as washing machines and vacuum cleaners
20.
a hiding place for the irresponsible business
V E R B/PREDICATE
Bahasa
Inggris kita mengenal beberapa bentuk kata kerja:
- bentuk dasar (infinitive) (V0): go Be
- bentuk present (V1): go/goes is, am, are
- bentuk past (V2): went was, were
- bentuk past participle (V3):
gone
Been
- bentuk present participle (Ving): going Being
Vo V1 s/es V2 ed1 V3ed2 V-ing
Infinitive Present Past Past Participle Present
participl
(to) go go(es) went gone going
(to) have have/has had
had having
(to) do do(es)
did done doing
(to) be is,
am, are was, were been being
(to) buy buy(s) bought
bought buying
(to) lie lie(s)
lay lain lying
(to) lie lie(s)
lied lied lying
(to) lay lay(s)
laid laid laying
Bentuk dasar (infinitive/V0) digunakan setelah kosa kata berikut:
Nouns: ability, attempt, chance, desire,
failure, inability, need, opportunity,
readiness, willingness,
unwillingness, way, etc.
Verbs: afford, agree, aim, appear, ask,
attempt, dare, claim, choose, arrange,
decide, demand, deserve, desire,
endeavor, fail, fight, forget, help,
hesitate, hope, intend, learn,
manage, need, neglect, opt, plan,
prepare, pretend, promise, prove,
reckon, refuse, resolve, seek,
seem, survive, swear, tend,
threaten, volunteer, vote, want, wish.
Bentuk present participle (V-ing) digunakan setelah kosa kata berikut:
Admit,
appreciate, avoid, celebrate, consider, deny, delay, discontinue, dislike,
dread, enjoy, explain, finish, go, imagine, keep, keep on, mention, mind, miss,
practice, recall, report, resist, risk, stand, stop, suggest.
V E R B P H R A S E
Predicate suatu kalima bisa terdiri dari hanya satu verb, terutama
kalimat-kalimat yang menggunakan present dan past tense.
Namun demikian suatu kalimat yang mempunyai predicate yang terdiri lebih
dari satu unsur; dengan kata lain predicate-nya berupa suatu phrase, tergantung
pada jenis tenses yang digunakan dalam kalimat tersebut.
Empat (4) Konstruksi sederhana dalam Verb Phrase:
1. Modal (can, may, must,
shall/ will) + Vo
2. To have (have, has, had) + V3 – sudah, belum
3. To be (am, is, are, was,
were) + V-ing --sedang
4. To be (am, is, are, was,
were) + V3 –di, ter (passive)
Present tense à V1/s/es kebiasaan, fakta, dilakukan berulang-ulang
Pat Tense à V2 dilakukan/terjadi di waktu lalu/telah
lewat
Konstruksi yang pertama
(modal + Vo) digunakan untuk menyatakan kemungkinan, keharusan, nasihat,
larangan, spekulasi, waktu yang akan datang, dan lain-lainnya. Konstruksi ke
tiga (to be + V-ing) digunakan untuk menyatakan bahwa suatu kejadian tengah
berkangsung. Konstruksi ke dua ( to have
+ V3 ) digunakan untuk menyatakan bahwa suatu kejadian telah selesai. Sedangkan
konstruksi keempat (to be + V3) digunakan untuk menyatakan pengertian passive.
Examples:
1. The lawyer will take the
case to court.
2. As good citizen we should
obey the laws.
3. The judge has sentenced the
criminal to death.
4. The trial had finished
before the TV reporter arrived.
5. The convict was listening to
the prosecution…..
6. The visitors stood up when
the Judge was Entering the Courtroom.
7. The criminal was taken back
to the prison.
8. The suspect was proved
innocent.
Konstruksi-konstruksi
tersebut bisa dikembangkan dengan cara menggabungkan dua atau tiga konstruksi
menjadi satu. Proses penggabungan tersebut bisa digambarkan sebagai berikut:
1.
She + to have + V-3 +
To be + V-ing =
She +
has + been
+ writing
2.
We + to be + V-ing +
To
be + V-3 =
We +
are + being
+ followed
3. She + will + Vo
to have +
V-3 +
to be + V-ing
=
She +
will + have
+ been +
living
Exercise :
Underline the predicate of the sentence
1.
The
whole body of Roman law was not organized until about AD 530.
2.
Life,
liberty, and property must be protected.
3.
Today
law enforcement has reached a crisis all over the world.
4.
Certain
federal laws have been discarded.
5.
The
FBI National Academy
was founded in 1935.
6.
Increase
in the number of automobiles and better highways have resulted in traffic
problems.
7.
A
trial is frequently called a search for truth.
8.
A
witness for the defense might say the man was with him at the time and could
not have stolen the money.
9.
If
he had been proved guilty, he would have been sent to prison.
10.
After the accusation is filed with the court,
the defendant is called in with his lawyer to answer it.
Derivational Morpheme (Prefixes and Suffixes)
The concept of
word and
morpheme are different,
a morpheme may or may not stand alone. One or several morphemes compose a word.
A morpheme is
free if it can stand alone (ex:
"one",
"possible"), or
bound if it is used exclusively alongside
a free morpheme (ex:
"im" in
impossible). Its actual
phonetic representation is the
morph, with the
different morphs (
"in-", "im-") representing the
same morpheme being grouped as its
allomorphs.
English example:
The word "unbreakable" has three morphemes:
"un-", a bound morpheme; "break", a free morpheme; and
"-able", a free morpheme. "un-" is also a prefix, "-able" is a suffix. Both "un-" and
"-able" are affixes. The morpheme plural-s has the
morph "-s", /s/, in cats (/kæts/), but "-es", /ɨz/, in dishes (/dɪʃɨz/), and even the voiced
"-s", /z/, in dogs (/dÉ’É¡z/). "-s". These are
allomorphs.
1.
To form Noun
-cy, -ation, -er/-or, -ess, -ity, -ment, -ness, -ship
Democracy autocracy monocracy diplomacy
Nationalization appreciation explanation modernization
Painter teacher cooker dryer
Actor corruptor detonator generator
Mistress stewardess goddess waitress
Solemnity difficulty reality possibility
Government management acknowledgement commitment
Weakness happiness drowsiness laziness
Scholarship hardship leadership membership
2.
To form verb
-ize, -fy, -en, en-, de-,
Optimize analyze summarize hypothesize
Enlarge enrich entrust ensure
Redden blacken widen lengthen
Modify glorify identify beautify
Delimit demystify demoralize deconstruct
3.
To form Adjectives
-able, ed, -ful, -ical, -al, -ive, -less, -ous, -y, ic
Enjoyable readable understandable forgettable
Amused polished wanted exited
Beautiful wonderful useful thankful
Comical biblical spiritual usual
Talkative active attractive communicative
Backless useless hopeless meaningless
Industrious famous generous dangerous
Sketchy yummy chubby flabby
4.
To form Adverb -ly
Slowly quickly rapidly amusingly
But: lovely, friendly, deadly, heavenly, lonely, are
adjectives
hardly,
scarcely, usually, frequently, are adverb of frequency.
Exercise: Provide the
verb noun, adjectives, adverb
|
Verb
|
Noun
|
Adjective
|
Adverb
|
|
-
Use
-
-
-
contain
-
-
-
-
examine
-
-
-
open
-
-
-
communicate
-
-
-
divide
|
-
-
protection
-
-
-
expression
service
-
-
-
-
termination
-
-
-
nationality
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
|
Regular
-
-
functional
-
-
-
-
strong
-
-
deadly
-
-
-
interpretable
-
-
-
selective
dangerous
-
-
hard
|
-
-
-
-
widely
-
-
-
-
individually
-
-
-
collectively
-
-
-
clearly
-
-
-
illegally
-
-
|
CLAUSES: (TOEFL Ps: 200-233)
Suatu
kalimat, bila ditinjau dari jumlah clause yang digunakan, bisa dibedakan
menjadi empat, yaitu : 1. Simple
sentence,
2.
Compound
sentence,
3.
Complex
sentence,
4.
Compound
complex sentence.
1. Simple sentence (kalimat tunggal) adalah
suatu kalimat yang terdiri dari satu
Independenrt Clause (klausa bebas ).
Examples:
- He may be following us. You
must not say bad words.
2. Compound sentence (kalimat majemuk) adalah suatu
kalimat yang terdiri dari
dua independent clause.
Examples:
- He ran out
and he fell over the suitcase.
- She arrived
at nine, went up to her room and did not come down until noon.
3. Complex
sentence (kalimat komplex) adalah suatu kalimat yang terdiri dari
satu
independent clause dan satu atau
lebih dependent clause (klausa terikat).
Examples:
- When he was
invited to give a lecture, he was told that all reasonable expenses
would be refunded.
- He left the
town because he did not like crowds.
4. Compound complex sentence adalah suatu kalimat yang terdiri dari
dua
independent clause dan atau satu atau lebih
dependent clause.
Examples:
- I saw him
when he arrived the first time but I did not see him when he came
again.
- I was so
young and had no experience with men; therefore, I didn’t know
that he was actually just a good looking bastard
who liked playing with girls.
Clause:
Clause adalah
suatu konstruksi yang mengandung subject
dan predicate.
- Independent clause adalah clause yang bisa berdiri
sendiri sebagai suatu kalimat, tanpa menggantungkan diri pada clause lain Ã
(simple sentence).
- Dependent clause adalah klausa yang tidak bisa
berdiri sendiri sebagai suatu kalimat). Dia mempunyai arti hanya bila
dihubungkan dengan independent clause.
3 Jenis Dependent Clause: noun
clause, adjective clause, adverbial clause.
- Noun clause: klausa yang menduduki posisi dan
berfungsi sama dengan noun
- Adjective clause: klausa yang mempunyai fungsi sama
seperti adjective (menerangkan noun atau pronoun)
- Adverbial clause: clause yang mempunyai fungsi sama
dengan adverb. Adverbial clause digolongkan sesuai dengan makna kata sambung
yang digunakannya:
clause of time, clause of place, clause of contras,
clause of purpose, clause of cause, dan clause of result.
NOUN CLAUSE
Noun clause
bisa dikategorikan sesuai dengan jenis kalimat yang membentuknya:
statement,
question, request, dan exclamation (kalimat seru).
1. Noun
clause yang dibentuk dari sebuah statement
menggunakan introductory word ‘that’
dapat berfungsi baik sebagai: subject, complement, object kalimat.
Examples: clause ---the witness denied his testimony---
1.
That the witness denied his testimony is strange.
2.
The
problem is that the witness denied his testimony.
3.
People
do not believe that the witness denied his testimony.
2. Noun clause yang dibentuk
dari sebuah Question yang
mengharapkan jawaban ya atau tidak (yes/no question) menggunakan introductory word whether (or not) atau if. Noun clause ini juga bisa berfungsi
subject, complement, maupun object kalimat
Example:
clause --- Is the defendant proved guilty?---
1.
Whether or not the defendant is proved guilty is all the judge’s concern.
2.
The
question is whether or not the defendant is proved guilty.
3.
We
don’t know if the defendant is proved guilty.
3. Noun clause yang dibentuk
dari sebuah Question yang menggunakan
kata tanya (Wh question) tidak
memerlukan tambahan introductory word kecuali kata tanya yang digunakan dalam
kalimat itu sendiri, yaitu who, what,
which, when, where, why, atau how (sesuai dengan masalah yang ditanyakan).
Example: 1. Why did the witness deny his testimony?
2. How did the prisoner
escape from the jail?
1. Why the witness denied his
testimony is not known.
2. How the
prisoner escaped from the jail is still a mystery.
3. The
problem is why the witness denied his testimony.
4.
The
question is how the prisoner escaped from the jail.
5.
Nobody
knows why the witness denied his testimony.
6.
The
guard cannot explain how the prisoner escaped from the jail.
Note :
- Noun clause
yang dibentuk dari question, baik yes/no question, maupun
Wh- question mengalami perubahan urutan
kata menjadi pola statement (subject-predicate).
4. Noun
clause yang dibentuk dari request
juga menggunakan introductory word ‘that’ seperti statement. Noun clause ini
biasanya menduduki posisi object.
Example: Be
quiet! Ã
The judge wanted that the visitors to be quiet.
Noun clause
yang dibentuk dari exclamation menggunakan introductory word what atau how.
Noun clause ini biasanya menduduki posisi object.
Example: What
a terrible maniac the man is!
We cannot imagine what a terrible maniac the man is.
ADJECTIVE CLAUSE (Relative Clause)
Adjective
clause adalah suatu klausa yang menerangkan noun atau pronoun yang
mendahuluinya. Noun atau pronoun yang diterangkan tersebut disebut antecedent. Suatu adjective clause
digolongkan sesuai dengan antecedent
yang diterangkan oleh introductory word-nya.
Relative
pronoun: who, whom, dan whose untuk menerangkan manusia
(who
menerangkan subject, whom menerangan object, whose menyatakan milik).
Relative
pronoun which digunakan untuk
menerangkan benda. Sedangkan relative pronoun that bisa digunakan untuk menerangkan manusia maupun benda.
Adjective
clause dengan that/which/whom yang diikuti oleh sebuah subject, maka
introductory word nya dapat dihilangkan. Relative pronoun which bisa diganti dengan that
atau dihilangkan sama sekali.
(see Reduced clause TOEFL P. 227-233)
The book
(that) John bought is missing. Ã
The book John bought is missing.
The man
(whom) we met was my uncle. Ã The man we met was my uncle.
The coat
(which) she wore is red. Ã The coat she wore is red.
Relative
pronoun when untuk menyatakan waktu,
dan where untuk tempat, yang
masing-masing bisa diganti dengan which
setelah terlebih diberi preposisi yang menyatakan tempat (in, on, dll.).
Example:
1.
Lawyers
who practice tax law usually have some training experience in accountancy.
2.
A
lawyer is an agent whom person employs.
3.
The
lawyer could not find the knife which was supposed to be the evidence of
the murder attempt.
4.
The
van which the man used to rob the bank is now in the police station.
5.
The
police tried to find the person whose van had been used to rob the bank.
6.
The
man was taken to the place where his van had been found.
7.
The reason why he attempted to kill the old man is that he wanted to take the insurance.
8.
The
day when he can have his freedom again has arrived.
9.
The
man that hired the van was the one he had never met before.
ADVERBIAL CLAUSE
Adverbial
clause: clause yang mempunyai fungsi sama dengan adverb. Adverbial clause
digolongkan sesuai dengan makna kata sambung yang digunakannya:
clause of time, clause of place,
clause of contras,
clause of purpose, clause of cause, dan clause of result.
Sebagian
besar adverbial clause ini dianggap menerangkan predicate pada main
clause-nya; sedangkan yang lainnya dianggap menerangkan keseluruhan kalimat.
Suatu adverbial clause bisa berada di awal, tengah, atau akhir sebuah
main clause.
Hal yang perlu
diperhatikan dalam menempatkan sebuah adverbial clause adalah:
1. Adverbial
clause yang (jauh) lebih panjang daripada main clause-nya, sebaiknya diletakkan
di akhir kalimat,
2. Sebuah
adverbial clause perlu dipisahkan dari main clause-nya dengan koma, apabila
adverbial clause tersebut diletakkan di tengah (antara subject dan pedicate).
Example:
1. Adverbial Clause of time :
The case
starts whenever the complaint is filed with the court.
The man saw
the accident while he was walking home.
The victim
had been taken to hospital before the ambulance arrived.
The convict
collapsed after he had heard the punishment.
We had never
seen Anisa until she was promoted doctor of international law.
As soon as
the judge had announced the sentence, the visitors left the courtroom.
Once she
makes up her mind, she never changes it.
No cases
start as long as people keep their promises.
As the judge
was entering the courtroom, everybody rose from their seats.
2. Adverbial clause of place:
Where there
is poverty, there we find discontent and unrest.
Where there
is trouble, there he was sure to be.
He believes
that wherever there is trouble, a woman is involved.
3. Adverbial clause of Cause:
They had to
cancel the trial because the convict was too weak to sit in dock.
Since the man
was proved guilty, the judge sentenced him a 2-year imprisonment.
As he had a
perfect alibi, the judge set him free.
The case was
closed on the ground that no reliable evidence was obtained.
Whereas a
number of the conditions in the contract have not been met, the company has
decided to cancel the contact.
4. Adverbial clause of result : so…that
- adj/adv (Sedemikian rupa sehingga)
such …that - noun
She is so
emotional that every little thing upsets her.
She behaved
so emotionally that we knew something terrible had upsets her.
He was such a
dangerous maniac that he should have been locked up.
The lawyer
paid such great attention to the case that people believed he would win it.
5. Adverbial clause of purpose: so that (Agar Supaya)
- He tried
every possible way to get the evidence in order that he could put the man to
court.
- The police
had the picture of the criminal printed in newspapers so that people would
recognize him.
- They are
working night and day in the hope that they can finish the case as soon as possible.
- To the end
that justice may be served, the defendant will be offered every opportunity to
establish his innocence.
6. Adverbial clause of condition :
If you broke
laws, the police would arrest you.
He would not
have been arrested unless he had been against the laws.
The lawyer
will do any thing to defend the right even if he has to risk his life.
The company
will agree to give a raise provided that the strike is called off at once.
He would have
forgiven her, if only she had apologized.
Suppose
(that) your house burns down, do you have enough insurance to cover such a
loss?
7. Adverbial clause of contrast :
- We couldn’t
meet the deadline, although we worked day and night.
- Though he
had received less money than it should, he accepted the cut in salary
without complaints.
- Even though
she was proved guilty, many people believed her to be innocent.
- He claimed
to be the successor when in fact he was an outsider.
- They made
all attempts to defend the man, though they realized that they would fail.
Reduced Clause
BENTUK-2 SINGKAT ADVERBIAL CLAUSE
Adverbial clause of time:
- When
walking home, the man saw the accident.
(when the man was walking home).
- The convict
collapsed after hearing the punishment.
(after he had
heard the punishment).
- Leaving the
courtrooms, he was trembling.
(when he was leaving the courtroom)
Adverbial clause of cause:
- Having a
perfect alibi, the man was set free.
(since he had a perfect alibi)
- Not knowing
what he said, she kept silent.
(because he did not know what to say)
- Being
scared, she began to cry.
(as she was scared).
Adverbial clause of purpose:
- He tried
every possible way to get the evidence in order to put the man to court.
- They are
working night and day so as to finish the case as soon as possible.
- The lawyer
had to work hard to get the evidence.
Adverbial clause of condition:
- I will find
some eye-witnesses if possible.
(if it is
possible)
- He will get
there on time if driving on top speed.
(if
he drives on top speed)
- She will
come if invited.
(if she is invited).
Adverbial clause of contrast:
- Though
working day and night, we couldn’t meet the deadline.
(though we worked day and night)
- Though
dangerous, diving is a favorite to some people.
(thought it is dangerous)
- Though
sentenced to death, he remained calm.
(though he was sentenced to death)
Conjunction or Connectors used in
Compound Sentences
and, but, so,
either. . . . or, neither. . . . nor, or, etc.:
He ran out
and (he) fell over down the stairs.
Jakarta is so beautiful but it is crowded
and polluted.
I am too
tired to go out so I prefer to have dinner at home.
On Sundays I
usually either stay at home or go out with friends.
Smoking
neither gives you good nutrition nor improves your performance
You pay the
money now or I call a police.
Conjunction or Connectors used in
Complex Sentences
After: She
washed the dishes after she had cooked the meal
After she had cooked the meal, she washed the dishes
Although/though:
Although they were poor, they were
honest.
As: As John says, it’s
time to go home.
It’s time to go home, as John says.
As the
weather is nice, it seems a good time for me to go out
As . . . as: He is as tall as his father
was.
Because: He left the town because he
did not like the crowds.
Because he did not like the crowds, he left the town.
Before: He had left the town
before the police came to his house.
Before the police came to his house, he had left the town.
If: If you try hard
you will certainly succeed.
You will certainly succeed, if you try hard.
Since: I
have not seen him since the day we left school.
Until/till: He worried about everything
until his daughter arrived.
Until his daughter arrived, he worried about everything.
When: Time
seems to pass quickly when we are happy.
When we are happy, time seems to pass quickly.
Where: He built his home where
is ancestors had lived.
Whether…or
not: John is the best runner
whether he knows it or not.
Which/that: This is the house which/that
Jack built.
While: Do
not cross the tracks while the lights are red
While the lights are red, do not cross the tracks
So . . .
that: She is so smart
that all her friends adore her
So that: I have to leave now so
that I can catch the first train to Jogja.
So as: I have to leave now
so as to catch the first train to Jogja.
Exercise:
Underline the dependent clause and
determine its type:
1.
When
people wrote down their laws, they began to realize that rules were made by men
as well as revealed by gods.
2.
Most
people do not get into the courts, because they obey the laws of society.
3.
A
criminal case starts when a policeman arrests someone who breaks law.
4.
A
trial is a search for what it should be.
5.
The
judge explains the law that applies in the case.
6.
After
judgment is pronounced, the trial court’s work is over.
7.
Since
the British system of justice prevailed in American chores for 150 years; there
is a strong family resemblance between American courts and the courts of the United Kingdom.
8.
A
difficult case may last for several weeks, but usually trials are shorter in
British.
9.
The
trial will decide whether the accused person is guilty or not.
10.
Most
lawyers today are generally college-trained-men who have completes a course in
a law school.
11.
This
method was more prevalent many years ago when educational facilities were few
and the body of law was small.
12.
After
a person has completed formal law-school training he must take an examination
to enable the state to check whether he has learned the fundamentals of the
law.
13.
This
examination, which is called the bar examination, is difficult.
14.
If a man wants to practice patent law, he must
know something about engineering, chemistry, physics, and similar subjects.
15.
The
training of a lawyer is so board and so varied that many men use their legal
education for entering other careers.
16.
The
law recognizes the close, intimate relationship and protects the client so that
what a client tells a lawyer is considered just as confidential and secret as
what is told to a priest or doctor.
17.
The
law permits every man to be his own lawyer in a lawsuit, if he wishes, but this
is not wise.
PARAGRAPH
Basic Paragraph
Structure
A paragraph is a unit of writing that consists of one or more
sentences focusing on a single idea or topic. In many
languages, the fundamental unit of composition is the paragraph. A paragraph
consists of several sentences that are grouped together. This group of
sentences together discuss one main subject. In U.S.
formal academic English, paragraphs have three principal parts. A
well-written paragraph often has the following structure:
- Topic
Sentence: This sentence outlines the main idea that will be presented
in the paragraph.
- Support
Details or Examples: This is the part of the paragraph that presents
details, facts, examples, quotes and arguments that support the main idea.
- Conclusion
Sentence: This sentence summarizes the main idea of the paragraph. It
may also lead the reader to the topic of the next paragraph.
There are many different types of
paragraphs, depending on what you are writing:
- Descriptive
Paragraph: This paragraph describes something or someone. For example,
you can write a descriptive paragraph describing your best friend,
including what she likes and dislikes, where she lives, what she wants for
her birthday, and her favorite food.
- Expository
Paragraph: This paragraph explains an idea; it is also called an
information paragraph. For example, you can write as expository paragraph
explaining how to make chocolate chip cookies.
- Persuasive
Paragraph: This paragraph tries to convince the reader of something.
This type of paragraph may start with a phrase like: "I think
that..." The support section may include sentences that start with,
"One reason is...," or "For example..." It may end
with something like, "This is why I think that..." For example,
you can write a persuasive paragraph telling why people should vote for
you for class president.
- Narrative
Paragraph: This paragraph describes an event or tells a story, usually
in chronological order. For example, you can write a narrative paragraph
detailng what you did on your first day of school.
A topic
sentence usually comes at the beginning of a paragraph; that is, it is usually
the first sentence in a formal academic paragraph. (Sometimes this is not
true, but as you practice writing with this online lesson site, please keep to
this rule unless you are instructed otherwise.) Not only is a topic
sentence the first sentence of a paragraph, but, more importantly, it is the most
general sentence in a paragraph. What does "most general"
mean? It means that there are not many details in the sentence, but that
the sentence introduces an overall idea that you want to discuss later in the
paragraph.
For
example, suppose that you want to write a paragraph about the natural landmarks
of your hometown. The first part of your paragraph might look like
this:
|
My hometown is famous for several amazing natural features. First, it
is noted for the Wheaton
River, which is very
wide and beautiful. Also, on the other side of the town is Wheaton Hill,
which is unusual because it is very steep.
|
(Notice how the first sentence begins with "My
hometown..." a few spaces to the right of the paragraph edge.
This is an indentation. All paragraphs in English MUST begin with
an indentation.)
Note how the first sentence, My
hometown, Wheaton,
is famous for several amazing geographical features,is the most general
statement. This sentence is different from the two sentences that follow it,
since the second and third sentences mention specific details about the town's
geography, and are not general statements.
Here are some examples of sentences that cannot be
used as topic sentences. Can you figure out why they are inappropriate?
- My
hometown is famous because it is located by Wheaton River,
which is very wide, and because it is built near an unusually steep hill
called Wheaton Hill.
- There
are two reasons why some people like to buy cars with automatic
transmission and two reasons why others like cars with manual
transmission.
- Clouds
are white.
|
The problem with sentence #1 is
that it contains too many details. Topic sentences are general, and details
should appear later in the paragraph. A better topic sentence would be like the
one mentioned above, My hometown is famous for several amazing geographical
features.
Sentence #2 is not appropriate as
a topic sentence because it mentions two topics, not just one. Paragraphs are
usually about one main thing and so their topic sentences should also be about
only one main thing.
The problem with sentence #3 is
that it is toogeneral. It is also very boring! Would you like to read a
paragraph with this topic sentence? Most people would not.
We can rewrite sentences #2 and #3 in the following
ways to make it better:
- There
are two reasons why some people like to buy cars with automatic
transmission. OR (in a different paragraph):
- There
are two reasons why some people like cars with manual transmission.
- The
shapes of clouds are determined by various factors.
|
Supporting Sentences
Consider again the above-mentioned, short
paragraph:
|
My hometown, Wheaton,
is famous for several amazing natural features. First, it is noted for
the Wheaton River, which is very wide and
beautiful. Also, on the other side of the town is Wheaton Hill, which is
unusual because it is very steep.
|
(Again, note how this paragraph is indented on the
first line, about five or seven spaces in from the left-hand edge of the
paragraph. Always remember to indent your paragraphs!)
When a reader reads a topic
sentence, such as My hometown, Wheaton,
is famous for several amazing natural features,a question should
usually appear in the reader's mind. In this case, the question should be
like, "What are the natural features that make Wheaton famous?" The reader
should then expect that the rest of the paragraph will give an answer to
this question.
Now look at the sentences after
the topic sentence. We can see that the second sentence in the
paragraph, First, it is noted for the Wheaton River, which is very
wide and beautiful,indeed gives an answer to this question. That is, the
second sentence gives some explanation for the fact that Wheaton is a famous town.
Similarly, we can see that the third sentence also gives some explanation for
the fact that Wheaton
is famous by giving another example of an "amazing natural feature,"
in this case, Wheaton Hill.
The second and third sentences are
called supporting sentences. They are called
"supporting" because they "support," or explain, the idea
expressed in the topic sentence. Of course, paragraphs in English often
have more than two supporting ideas. The paragraph above is
actually a very short paragraph. At minimum, you should have at least five
to seven sentences in your paragraph. Here we can see our
paragraph about Wheaton
with a few more supporting sentences in bold font:
|
My hometown is famous for several amazing natural features. First, it
is noted for the Wheaton
River, which is very
wide and beautiful. Also, on the other side of the town is Wheaton Hill,
which is unusual because it is very steep. The third amazing feature is
the Big Old Tree. This tree stands two hundred feet tall and is probably
about six hundred years old.
|
In this lesson, we will talk about supporting
sentences again in the section, "Details in Paragraphs," below.
In formal
paragraphs you will sometimes see a sentence at the end of the paragraph which
summarizes the information that has been presented. This is the
concluding sentence. You can think of a concluding sentence as a sort of
topic sentence in reverse.
You can understand concluding sentences with this
example. Consider a hamburger that you can buy at a fast-food
restaurant.* A hamburger has a top bun (a kind of bread), meat, cheese,
lettuce, and other elements in the middle of the hamburger, and a bottom bun.
Note how the top bun and the bottom bun are very similar. The top bun, in
a way, is like a topic sentence, and the bottom bun is like the concluding
sentence. Both buns "hold" the meat, onions, and so on.
Similarly, the topic sentence and concluding sentence "hold" the
supporting sentences in the paragraph. Let's see how a concluding
sentence (in bold font) might look in our sample paragraph about Wheaton:
|
My hometown is famous for several amazing natural features. First, it
is noted for the Wheaton
River, which is very
wide and beautiful. Also, on the other side of the town is Wheaton Hill,
which is unusual because it is very steep. The third amazing feature is the
Big Old Tree. This tree stands two hundred feet tall and is probably about
six hundred years old. These three landmarks are truly amazing and make my
hometown a famous place.
|
Notice how the concluding
sentence, These three landmarks are truly amazing and make my hometown a
famous place,summarizes the information in the paragraph. Notice also
how the concluding sentence is similar to, but not exactly the same as, the
topic sentence.
Not all academic paragraphs contain concluding
sentences, especially if the paragraph is very short. However, if your
paragraph is very long, it is a good idea to use a concluding sentence.
The short paragraph in this lesson
is a fairly complete paragraph, but it lacks details. Whenever
possible, you should include enough details in your paragraphs to help your
reader understand exactly what you are writing about. In the paragraph
about Wheaton,
three natural landmarks are mentioned, but we do not know very much about
them. For example, we could add a sentence or two about Wheaton river concerning HOW wide it is or
WHY it is beautiful. Consider this revision (and note the additional
details in bold):
|
My hometown is famous for several amazing natural features. First, it
is noted for the Wheaton
River, which is very
wide and beautiful. On either side of this river, which is 175 feet wide,
are many willow trees which have long branches that can move gracefully in
the wind. In autumn the leaves of these trees fall and cover the
riverbanks like golden snow. Also, on the other side of the town is
Wheaton Hill, which is unusual because it is very steep. Even though
it is steep, climbing this hill is not dangerous, because there are some firm
rocks along the sides that can be used as stairs. There are no trees
around this hill, so it stands clearly against the sky and can be seen from
many miles away. The third amazing feature is the Big Old Tree.
This tree stands two hundred feet tall and is probably about six hundred
years old. These three landmarks are truly amazing and make my hometown
a famous place.
|
If we wished, we could also add more details to the
paragraph to describe the third natural feature of the area, the Big Old Tree.
Why are details important? Consider
the example of the hamburger, mentioned above.* If the hamburger buns are
the topic and concluding sentences, then the meat, the cheese, the lettuce, and
so on are the supporting details. Without the food between the hamburger
buns, your hamburger would not be very delicious! Similarly, without
supporting details, your paragraph would not be very interesting.
A Note on Formality.
In addition to having a particular kind of structure, academic paragraphs
(and multi-paragraph essays, which will be topic of another lesson) are
different from "ordinary writing" (such as letter writing) in that
certain kinds of expressions are not allowed. For example, in formal
essays, you should not use contractions such as
don't or
aren't.
Instead, you should write out the words in full, for example,
do not and
are not.
Also, in formal essays you should avoid the first
and second person. That is, do not use the pronouns I or you.
The pronouns we and us are sometimes used in formal essays in
some major fields, but in general you should not use these unless you are certain
that they are customary in your field and/or your professor allows
them. It is safer simply to use the third person.
|
TOO
INFORMAL
(Do not use)
|
ACCEPTABLE
|
|
don't
|
do
not
|
|
doesn't
|
does
not
|
|
aren't
|
are
not
|
|
weren't
|
were
not
|
|
can't
|
cannot
|
|
couldn't
|
could
not
|
|
won't
|
will
not
|
Slave
spirituals often had hidden double meanings. On one level, spirituals
referenced heaven, Jesus, and the soul, but on another level, the songs spoke
about slave resistance. For example, according to Frederick Douglass, the song
"O Canaan, Sweet Canaan" spoke of slaves' longing for heaven, but it
also expressed their desire to escape to the North. Careful listeners heard
this second meaning in the following lyrics: "I don't expect to stay /
Much longer here. / Run to Jesus, shun the danger. / I don't expect to
stay." When slaves sang this song, they could have been speaking of their
departure from this life and their arrival in heaven; however, they also could
have been describing their plans to leave the South and run, not to Jesus, but
to the North. Slaves even used songs like "Steal Away to Jesus (at
midnight)" to announce to other slaves the time and place of secret,
forbidden meetings. What whites heard as merely spiritual songs, slaves
discerned as detailed messages. The hidden meanings in spirituals allowed
slaves to sing what they could not say.
The example of Argumentative Paragraph
During the economy global crisis,
Government should increase the salary of Indonesian House of Representative
members. People who disagree with that proposal believe that it is not wise to
increase the salary of them because there are a lot of poor people in this
country. It is undeniable fact that is really happening, but there are also some
reasons to improve the prosperity of Indonesian Representatives. Logically,
when the prosperity and salary are enough, the tendency of being a corruptor
would be lower. As we know, the sallary is already much enough, but there are
so many things that can tempt them to abuse their authority. Moreover, they
need an appreciation for the big responsibility as representatives. Hard work
and full dedication are highly demanded from them. Last, to accommodate
public’s aspiration in rural area, it needs extra money. Indonesia’s area is very large and
consist of many islands. They need to going by plane and hotel accommodation
when meet people in remote places. For those reasons, government needs to
increase the salary of representatives in order to improve their work.
Example of Descriptive Paragraph
A
Friendly Clown
On one corner of my dresser sits a
smiling toy clown on a tiny unicycle--a gift I received last Christmas from a
close friend. The clown's short yellow hair, made of yarn, covers its ears but
is parted above the eyes. The blue eyes are outlined in black with thin, dark
lashes flowing from the brows. It has cherry-red cheeks, nose, and lips, and
its broad grin disappears into the wide, white ruffle around its neck. The
clown wears a fluffy, two-tone nylon costume. The left side of the outfit is
light blue, and the right side is red. The two colors merge in a dark line that
runs down the center of the small outfit. Surrounding its ankles and disguising
its long black shoes are big pink bows. The white spokes on the wheels of the
unicycle gather in the center and expand to the black tire so that the wheel
somewhat resembles the inner half of a grapefruit. The clown and unicycle
together stand about a foot high. As a cherished gift from my good friend Tran, this
colorful figure greets me with a smile every time I enter my room.
ESSAY
The Elements and Structure of a Formal Essay
In this class, we will be asking you to use the writing
process to write formal, college level essays. Formal essays must have
five basic elements if they are to be successful:
These five
elements are absolutely essential. We will be grading your papers on whether or not the
five elements are present. Each of these elements is discussed
below. At the end of this document is an outline and brief description of standard essay structure.
1. The Thesis Statement
As you learned from the
“Reader as Writer” reading, a thesis is a statement of fact or opinion that you
will defend in the course of your paper. The thesis statement includes
the reasons or points you will be making to support your initial
statement. A thesis statement does two vitally important things. 1)
it establishes the subject and purpose of your paper, 2) it gives your readers
a roadmap of the points that will be discussed in the paper.
Here is an
example of an effective thesis statement:
Overall, online learning offers many advantages to a
diverse array of students. Disabled students, adults returning to school and
rural students all benefit greatly from online learning. Online learning does
not come without problems though. Computers can crash and servers can go down.
Dealing with these problems can be time consuming and frustrating.
Cindy’s paragraph is
effective because it states the writer’s opinion (online learning offers many
advantages to a diverse array of students, but online learning does not
come without problems) and her reasons for this opinion. In the body of
her essay, the author went on to discuss in detail 1) advantages to disabled
students; 2) advantages to returning adult students; 3) advantages to
rural students; 4) disadvantages to all students. Thus, her thesis served as a
very effective roadmap for what was to come in the essay.
Here is an example
of an ineffective thesis statement:
I enrolled in my
first online computer class this summer. So far I learned that there are
definitely some disadvantages and advantages of an online class. I feel that I
need the interaction that you get with a usual classroom environment. I like to
know how I'm doing in the class, being able to have questions answered right
away, and meeting my fellow students. I guess that I am a people person and
like the interaction that a classroom has to offer.
John’s paragraph is
ineffective because the reader has no idea what the author is going to discuss
in the paper. Each sentence is a possible topic, but there is nothing to
indicate how the ideas connect to one another, which ideas are important, or
what points the author is going to use to support his ideas.
2. Body Paragraphs
As noted above, your body paragraphs
need to directly and specifically discuss the points mentioned in your thesis
statement in the order they are mentioned in your thesis statement.
If you don’t do this, your roadmap isn’t just invalid, it’s misleading, and
your readers will become confused.
When you write the body of your
paper, you should always be looking back at your thesis to see that you’re
following the roadmap. If, as you’re writing, you think of another point
it’s important and logical to make, you need to revise your thesis so that the
roadmap is still valid.
A body paragraph takes a point –for
example, advantages of online learning for disabled students—and discuss it in
detail, giving examples and evidence to support that point. Here’s
Cindy’s body paragraph on advantages of online learning for disabled students:
Disabled students are one group of people who benefit
greatly from online learning. Many disabled students face great obstacles when
trying to receive a college education. Just getting to school can be difficult
and expensive. Many schools do not have specialized computer programs that can
help blind or deaf students. Though schools are now required to provide sign
language interpreters for deaf students, many still miss things that are
discussed in class. Schools are often large, making it hard for some students
to even get to the classrooms. With online learning, disabled students no
longer have to worry about these things. They are now on the same level as
everyone else.
You see how
Cindy has given us examples and reasons why online learning is advantageous for
the disabled. Notice how in her thesis she simply lists the disabled as
one of the groups that benefit from online learning. She uses the body
paragraph to discuss this point in depth and provide evidence to support
it.
3. Transitions
Providing logical connections between
ideas is one of the most important keys to good writing. If you and I are
talking about how uncomfortable the hot weather has been, and all of a sudden I
say “Lobo, my pet slug died,” you’re going to be completely confused. You
won’t know how I got from the weather to the tragic death of Lobo. What’s
missing is the transition, the thought that links one idea to the next.
Let’s say, on the other hand, that
we’re talking about the hot weather, and I remark “The hot weather isn’t just
uncomfortable; it’s dangerous too. In fact, Lobo my pet slug, insisted on
going outside for his daily walk and he died of heat prostration in two minutes
flat.” I’ve built a bridge between the two ideas with one simple sentence
that connects the old idea (hot weather is uncomfortable) with the new idea
(hot weather is dangerous).
The good news about transitions is
that they don’t have to be complicated. They can be as simple as one word
or a single sentence. You just need to be sure that as you read over your
paper you ask yourself what the connection between each of your ideas is.
For a list of good transition words, see the “Paragraphs” document in the
“Grammar” folder under Course Documents.
4. The Conclusion
It is said that “A conclusion is the
place where you got tired of thinking.” However, this is not
supposed to be the case in your essays. Your conclusion serves two
specific functions: 1) it summarizes what has been said in the body of
the paper without repeating it, and 2) it provides the reader with a
relevant final thought on what you want them to do, think, believe, or
understand, now that they've read your essay. Note that a conclusion is
definitely not the place to introduce new ideas.
Here’s a case study of a good
conclusion. Maureen was writing about the positive and negative aspects
of online communities. Her thesis statement was:
Having a virtual classroom as the sole source of instruction is a growing
trend with several wonderful advantages. We can have discussion where each
person’s contribution is uninterrupted, where gender is not necessarily a
factor, where appearances does not distract us and where many disabilities are
no longer a barrier. There is potential for misunderstanding, false identities,
magnified emotions, and information overload, but the advantages balance the
negatives to make virtual classrooms a welcome addition to our educational
system.
In the body of her paper, Mo
discussed the points she raised, setting an optimistic tone both about the
advantages and about the fact that problems with online classes were
resolvable. Her conclusion ties these ideas together, reminds the reader
of thesis without repeating it, and leaves the reader with a relevant final
thought.
As virtual classrooms and our educational systems
evolve into the mainstream, we will need to find the balance between the
advantages and challenges of this new forum for education. The difficulties the
online environment poses do not outweigh its advantages, particularly since
there are solutions to many of these problems. Ultimately, the fact
that education is growing to include the internet as a standard learning option
means we will have another forum for people to flourish and develop in their
intellect and ability. This is a wonderful opportunity that will benefit us
all.
Notice that Mo hasn’t added any new
ideas or arguments in her conclusion. If you get to the end of your paper
and say “Oh! I just thought of another thing,” do not tack it on
to the conclusion. As stated above, “When you write the body of your
paper, you should always be looking back at your thesis to see that you’re
following the roadmap. If, as you’re writing, you think of another point
it’s important and logical to make, you need to revise your thesis so that the
roadmap is still valid.”
Anna’s pet peeve: do not cheat
by using the words “in conclusion” to announce the arrival of your
conclusion. The content of your concluding paragraph should make clear
that it is in fact the conclusion without you having to say it.
5. Appropriate Diction and
Tone
The purpose of this class is to teach
you how to write formal, college level essays. Part of writing these
essays is learning the diction (word choice) and tone customary in this kind of
writing. Here are some guidelines for the appropriate diction and tone of
your essays. Note that these guidelines do not apply to the other kinds
of writing you do in this class.
· You are
writing for an audience of classmates and teachers.
· You are
speaking to these people in a professional or formal capacity, as opposed to a
casual and friendly capacity (such as we use in our chat room or email
exchanges). Imagine you are dressed in your nicest clothes and speaking
to an audience that has come to hear you and learn something from you.
· Your
audience has a basic understanding of your topic and does not need common or
simple terms explained to them.
· You should
not use slang or informal language in them. One of the problems with
John’s thesis statement in the Thesis section above is that tone is much to
informal.
· Your focus
should be on facts and ideas rather than rumor and conjecture.
· You should
not include “I believe,” “I think,” “I feel,” “In my opinion,” etc. in your
essay. It is assumed that an essay represents your ideas and
opinions. These are useless fillers. Don’t believe me? Try crossing those
phrases out, and you’ll find your sentence works just as well without them.
Note: it’s perfectly fine for you to discuss your own specific experiences
(“Once when I was in a chat room, I had a five hour conversation with someone
about snails.”)
· Do not
use any version of the phrase “It goes without saying.” If something goes
without saying, your reader will wonder why you are bothering to say it. You
should wonder too. The same goes for “not to mention.”
· Avoid
rhetorical questions like “How would you like to . . .” or “What do you think
of that?” These direct addresses to an audience set an informal, “talky,” tone
and don’t actually accomplish anything but taking up space (since, of course)
your audience cannot answer you.
Standard Essay Structure
Here’s an
overview of how a standard essay is structured. Just something to keep in mind
as you work on formulating your thesis and start thinking about writing your
rough draft.
I. Thesis (A statement of opinion that you
will discuss and defend in your essay)
Example:
As more and more people integrate the internet into their work and private
lives, we will see a dramatic increase in both written and verbal communication
skills.
A. Sub Point #1 (Sub points break the thesis down into parts which you
will then discuss at greater length in the body of the paper. Sub points serve
the reader as a road map to the organization of your paper.)
Example:
Writing skills naturally improve with internet use, since almost all online
communication is conducted through the written word.
B. Sub Point #2
Example:
In addition, while internet users become more proficient at writing, their
spoken communication skills will also improve, because writing will give them
practice organizing and expressing their ideas.
(Note: you
may have more than two sub points)
II. Body
A. Discussion of Sub Point #1
Explain this idea in more detail.
Raise possible objections, problems with this idea.
Answer these objects and defend this idea.
B. Discussion of Sub Point #2
Explain this idea in more detail.
Raise possible objections, problems with this idea.
Answer these objectionss and defend this idea.
Discussion of further Sub Points if you have
listed them in your thesis.
III. Conclusion
Your
conclusion restates your thesis (puts it in different words), and leaves the
reader with a relevant final thought on what you want the reader to do, think,
believe, or understand, now that they've read your essay.
Example
The Three Africas
When
many people hear the word Africa, they picture
steaming jungles and gorillas. Hollywood films
have shrunk the public image of this immense, varied continent into a small
segment of its actual diversity. To have a more accurate picture of the whole
continent, however, one should remember that there are, roughly, three Africas, each with its distinct climate and terrain and
with a style of life suited to the environment. The continent can be divided
into the northern desert areas, the southeastern grasslands, and the tropical
jungles to the southwest.
The
northern regions have the environment and living patterns of the desert. Egypt, Libya,
Algeria, and Morocco have
hot, dry climates with very little land suited to farming. Therefore, the
population tends to be clustered into cities along rivers or the seacoast or
into smaller settlements near oases. For thousands of years, people have lived
in this vast region, subsisting partly on what crops and animals they could
raise and partly on trade with Europe.
The
southeastern grasslands provide a better environment for animal life and for
some kinds of crops. Many wild animals inhabit the plains in this
region--elephants, giraffes, rhinoceros, antelopes, zebras, and lions. The
people in this area have long been expert cattle raisers and hunters. Tea,
coffee, cotton, cashew nuts, and tobacco are some of the main products grown in
this region. Fishing also provides some food and income for people along the
coast. The population here is less concentrated in cities and towns than in the
north, but tends to be denser in areas where adequate rainfall and fertile soil
make farming possible.
West
Africa is the region closest to the Hollywood
image of mysterious jungles. As in the other two regions, the way people
subsist depends upon their environment. This does not mean that most of the
people live in grass huts in the jungle. Such nations as Nigeria have
become highly modernized by income from oil, timber, and minerals. Most of the
western countries have some farming that provides food and income; sugar cane,
coffee, and tobacco are the important cash crops, while bananas, rice, and corn
are raised for food. Fishing in the rivers and along the coast also accounts
for food and income, and precious stones, especially diamonds, enhance the
economy of Angola and the Ivory Coast.
Even a
superficial look at the major regions of Africa
shows that it is a varied continent with several environments. Although most of
the continent is tropical in its range of temperature, the climate ranges from
deserts to rain forests. Similarly, human life-styles vary from the simplest
rural villages to industrial cities, both new and ancient. Contrary to the
myth, however, jungle life makes up only a very small portion of the whole of Africa.
READING AND UNDERSTANDING
Level of Education unit
curriculum (Kurikulum Tingkat Satuan Pendidikan)
According to Nasution (1999), the curriculum is a set of
plans and arrangements on the objectives, content and teaching materials and
methods used to guide the implementation of instructional activities to achieve
certain educational
goals. Objectives include the national education goals as well as conformance
to specification, state and regional potential, education unit and learners.
Therefore, the curriculum prepared by the educational
unit to allow adjustment of educational programs to the needs and potential in
the region.
There are few
curricula have been developed today, such as:
1. Curriculum 1994
2. Curriculum 2004
3. Competency-Based Curriculum (CBC)
4. Level of Education unit curriculum (KTSP)
In the development Education Unit Level Curriculum (KTSP),
which vary based on National Education Standards (SNP) to ensure the
achievement of national education goals. National Standards of Education
Content Standard, Standard Process, Competency standards Passed, Education
Workforce Standards, Standards for Infrastructure, Standards Management,
Financing Standards, Assessment Standards. Two of the eight standards, which
are nsional education and Competency Standards Content Standard Passed is the
main reference for the education unit in developing curriculum.
Law of the Republic of Indonesia Number 20 Year 2003 (UU
20/2003) about the System of National Education and the Indonesian Government
Regulation Number 19 Year 2005 (PP 19/2005) about the National Standards of
Education has mandated curriculum unit level education of primary and secondary
levels of education have been prepared by educational unit based on the content
standards and pass the competency standards and is guided by the guidelines
established by the BSNP.
KTSP is an operational curriculum developed and
implemented by each educational unit in this case refers to the law school is
the educational unit (Sutrisno, 2008). In developing the SBC is done by each
group or the education unit and school committee / madrasa under the
coordination and supervision of Department of Education / Ministry of Religious
Affairs office of district / city for Secondary Education and Special
Education.
KTSP Emphasis is on developing the ability to do
(competence) and tasks with specific performance standards so the results can
be felt by students in the form of mastery of a set of specific competencies.
This educational program standard device should be able to deliver students to
have a competency of knowledge, and values used in various fields of life.
Indeed, KTSP is a curriculum that reflects the knowledge,
skills and attitudes which refers to the concept of education as suggested by
Bloom, which in turn can improve students' potentials optimally. Accordingly,
the curriculum is prepared to foster the learning process in schools oriented
mastery competencies that have been determined by integrative. OH developed is
able to adapt to various changes (containing the basic principles, are flexible
in accordance with the times) and its development through the accreditation
process that allows the subjects can be modified within their growing demands.
Thus, this curriculum is the development of knowledge, understanding,
abilities, values, attitudes and interests, to perform a skill or task in the
form of skills and sense of responsibility. Furthermore, this curriculum is a curriculum
design that was developed based on a number of specific competencies, so that
after completing a certain educational level, students are expected to master a
series of competencies and apply them in later life.
KTSP implementation in Indonesian education system does
not just change the curriculum, but it involves fundamental changes in the
education system. Application of KTSP requires a paradigm shift in teaching and
schooling, because the application of KTSP not only caused changes in concepts,
methods and strategies of teachers in teaching, but also concerning the pattern
of thought to carry away, philosophically, the commitment of teachers, schools
and education stakeholders.
In KTSP placed teachers as facilitators and mediators who
help keep students' learning process goes well. The main attention on students
learning, not on discipline or the teacher. The function of a facilitator or
mediator that means, namely: (1) to provide learning experiences that enable
students are responsible to make design and process; (2) provide or provide
activities that stimulate students' curiosity and help them to express ideas,
provide the means that stimulating students to think productively, provide
opportunities and experiences of conflict, (3) monitor, evaluate, and indicates
whether the student thought the road or not. Teacher shows and questioned
whether students apply knowledge to deal with new problems. Teachers help
students evaluate hypotheses and conclusions.
KTSP DEVELOPMENT
PRINCIPLES:
1. Centered on the potential,
progress, needs and interests of learners and their environment The curriculum
was developed based on the principle that learners has a central position to
develop their competence in order a human being faithful and obedient to God's
compassion Esa, morality, healthy, knowledgeable, capable, creative,
independent and becomes citizens of a democratic and accountable. For support
the achievement of these goals competence development adjusted for potential
learners, progress, needs, and interests of learners as well as environmental
demands.
2. Diverse and integrated
The curriculum was developed with
attention to diversity learner characteristics, local conditions, and levels
and types of education, without distinction of religion, ethnicity, culture and
customs, as well as socioeconomic status and gender. The curriculum includes
substance mandatory component of curriculum content, local content, and
development
an integrated self, and have been prepared in the relevance and sustainability
antarsubstansi meaningful and appropriate.
3. Response to the development of
science and art
The curriculum was developed on the
basis of the awareness that science knowledge, technology and art of growing
dynamically, and by Therefore the spirit and content of the curriculum
encourages students to followed and properly utilize the development of science
knowledge, technology and art.
4. Be relevant to the needs of life
Curriculum development conducted by
involving stakeholders interests (stakeholders) to ensure the relevance of
education with needs of life, including life community, business world and the
world of work. Therefore, development of personal skills, thinking skills,
social skills, academic skills, and skills is a vocational necessity.
5. Comprehensive and continuous
The substance of the curriculum
covers all dimensions of competency, field scholarly study and subjects who
planned and presented for all sustainable levels of education.
6. Long Life Learning
The curriculum is directed to the
development process, acculturation and empowerment of learners that lasted a
lifetime. The curriculum reflects the linkages between the elements of
education formal, nonformal and informal, to conditions and demands an
environment that is always evolving and the development direction human beings.
7. Balance between national interests
and regional interest
The curriculum was developed by
taking into account the national interests and local interests to build a
social life, state and nation. National interests and the interests of
area must complement and empower in line with the motto Unity in Diversity
within the framework of the Unitary Republic of Indonesia.
School-based
Curriculum Development in the Primary Schools
School-based curriculum is the general policy ordained by the Curriculum
Development Council for schools' consideration in the design of a quality
curriculum conducive to effective pupil learning. Schools are encouraged to
adapt the Central Curriculum to suit their unique contexts. When designing the
school-based curriculum, schools are advised to observe closely the directions
and requirements stipulated by the Curriculum Development Council in the
official curriculum documents. Based on careful analysis of pupils'needs,
abilities and interests, schools' ecological contexts, leadership style of the
principals and middle management, as well as the readiness of teachers, schools
need to employ the most appropriate teaching, learning and assessment
strategies and use diversified learning materials to integrate the
teaching-learning-assessment cycle in their school-based curriculum. It is
important to ensure that all pupils have equal opportunities participating in
rich learning experiences that aim at promoting whole person development and
life long learning.
School-based
Curriculum in the Primary Schools
In order to further improve teaching and learning in primary
schools, the School-based Curriculum Development (Primary) Section has started
working with primary school teachers since 1998. We work together with teachers
in designing school-based curriculum in various Key Learning Areas. This
partnership with frontline teachers has cultivated a collaborative lesson
planning (CLP) culture and has promoted educational action research that aims
to help teachers make informed decisions in teaching and learning.
When
reflecting on the process of developing a school-based curriculum with serving
teachers, we find that an understanding of the school ecological contexts and
pupils' learning processes is essential.
We are working towards the following goals
when supporting schools:
Merging curriculum knowledge and teachers' tacit knowledge
through collaborative lesson planning and action research such that new
understanding can be constructed on how pupils learn, what learning and
teaching strategies work, and how to facilitate assessment for learning.
Empowering teachers and other school stakeholders to make
their own decisions in the curriculum development process is crucial. This is
done through training a group of curriculum leaders who have hands-on pragmatic
experience gained inside and outside the school and would continuously develop
and adapt the curriculum based on pupil learning and pupil feedback.
Promoting a mutual learning culture among schools through
different channels. This sharing and exchange between schools can enrich
principals' knowledge of school management and teachers' repertoire in
different Key Learning Areas (KLAs). Building learning communities of
reflective educators who advocate evidence-based practice and research on
different teaching and learning issues. While the development of the
school-based curriculum hinges on the involvement of school communities,
expertise and professional judgments of teachers and their ownership towards
the curriculum is a prerequisite. A successful curriculum conducive to student
learning relies on teachers' and curriculum leaders' enthusiastic participation
and school administrators' awareness and flexibility in coordinating and
facilitating efforts of various stakeholders within and without the schools.
Teachers have to engage in continuous professional development activities and
see the close relation between research and curriculum development. They have
to become independent professionals who can make informed and practical
decisions.
Aiming at strengthening and sustaining the growth of
school-based curricula, the School-based Curriculum Development (Primary)
Section will continue to provide schools with regular and flexible professional
services, develop school-based curricula in different Key Learning Areas, and
implement action research.
The development of the School-Based Curriculum Development
(Primary) Section
Since September 1998, the School-based Curriculum Development
(Primary) Section has been rendering on-site professional support services to
primary schools to help them develop quality school-based curriculum.
Curriculum development officers work closely with various stakeholders from the
local primary education sector in the development process. These stakeholders
include:
1.
teachers participating in collaborative lesson planning
or action research,
2.
curriculum leaders in primary schools, and
teachers
who would like to share their valuable experiences with other schools. Our
Experience
Through
co-operating with primary schools in the past 11 years, we have captured
valuable experiences and generated knowledge in developing the school-based
curriculum in various Key Learning Areas and subjects.
- The prime aim of the
school-based curriculum is to enhance students' learning, particularly in
the areas of learning-to-learn skills and open-minded attitudes. When
equipped with these skills and attitude, students are better able to face
the challenges of an ever-changing society.
- School principals' and teachers'
understanding of learning is of pivotal importance towards the success of
the school-based curriculum. This knowledge cannot be gained solely from
academic studies at tertiary institutions. Principals and teachers have to
embrace an open attitude to explore knowledge and discuss curriculum goals
with reference to subject knowledge organization, pedagogy, and
assessments. They have to put this knowledge into practice in the contexts
of their schools. Drawing evidence from students' feedback elicited from various
means, principals and teachers need to reflect on their own practices and
adopt improvement measures where necessary.
- Changes in organizational
practices are deemed necessary. The mode of collaboration between schools
and the Section emphasizes reflections and involvements of the
participating teachers and principals. Arrangements that facilitate
school-based curriculum development include organization structure,
timetabling, assessment systems, and teaching and learning resources.
Principals and staff members at managerial level need to negotiate for
compromises regarding the school policy and administration measures, and
incorporate into the school-based curriculum learning experiences that
benefit students.
Our Changes
1. From Service Provider to Partner
We understand that many schools still see us as experts,
expecting us to support schools and resolve their problems. While we are
striving to meet these expectations, we hope that schools could develop a
better understanding and interpretation of "knowledge" in
contemporary world contexts where information technology and knowledge grows
rapidly. In Chapter 10 of the Basic Education Curriculum Guide (2002), the
Curriculum Development Council defines three kinds of knowledge: "Knowledge
for Practice", "Knowledge in Practice" and "Knowledge of
practice". Based on this concept of knowledge and the mutual trust between
schools and the team of curriculum development officers, we have developed
quality school-based curricula in various Key Learning Areas. We hope that this
idea of constructing practical knowledge in schools will continue to grow. The
SBCDP Section has transcended from being a service provider to becoming a
partner of schools. We strongly believe that this partnership will benefit
schools in the long run.
2.
From Individual Scheme Participants to Members of a Learning Community
To implement the development of the school-based curriculum
in various schools, we have focused on teaching and learning, using various
KLAs and school subjects as platform for development. Together with serving
teachers, we have formed "curriculum development groups" working on
lesson planning while examining teaching and learning problems in pragmatic
ways. Understanding the need for disseminating the knowledge from the
participating groups to the whole school, we engage in constant professional
dialogues with school principals and teachers. Regular in-house and
inter-schools sharing sessions are useful platforms to spread our knowledge.
Over the years, the tie between local primary schools and the SBCDP Section has
grown much stronger and we all are members of a learning community emphasizing
continuous learning. We still keep constant contact withs chools previously
receiving our service. We see the growth of a sprouting learning community
attracting generous contributions from teachers and principals who are willing
to share their curriculum development experience and knowledge.
4.
From Applying Knowledge for Practice to
Initiating Evidence-based Research
With a view to generating a more thorough understanding of
teaching and learning problems, we are not content with applying only knowledge
for practice that may not be context-specific. After conducting thorough
literature review, seeking advice from international curriculum experts and
conferring with schools, we have conducted over 40 collaborative action
research projects with schools since 2000. While conducting the research with
teachers from different schools, curriculum development officers identified
curriculum-related teaching and learning issues, devised corresponding
practical remedies and intervention strategies, captured experiences, and
generated knowledge. Teacher committed enthusiastically to discussion and
reflections, two major features of action research. A wide range of data
collection methods, such as lesson observation, interviews, and questionnaires
have been deployed to collect evidences in the schools. When analyzing and
interpreting the data, we have adopted an open and critical attitude to gauge
the teaching and learning effectiveness, we have been skeptical about our
assumptions and reflective throughout the whole process. The most rewarding
moments came when we discovered how students learned better. This could inspire
teachers to improve teaching and learning. In some schools, we noticed that the
research experience has significantly fostered teachers' professionalism, and
this has boosted their confidence in cultivating an "evidence-based"
research culture in the schools.
Lessons learnt by the School-based Curriculum Development
(Primary) Section
Lesson 1:
Getting a Good Start
- Negotiate with teacher
participants on mutual goals, expectations & commitments, supporting
modes
- Beware of the school ecology:
planning at the school level for the new school year starts in May-June
while planning at KLA level starts in August, not in September.
- Get the right participants:
strategic allocation of teaching staff
- Allow time for CLP/meeting: help
teachers to prioritize their work given teachers' limited time
Lesson 2:
Treasure 'half-baked' ideas as well as refined programmes/packages
- Allow the flexibility for
adaptation and modification
- Be alert to participants'
readiness, experience, problem-solving skills and understanding of
teaching and learning. Effective strategies in one context may become
ineffective in another
- Develop learning communities in
schools instead of implement one-off programmes
Lesson 3:
Don't lose sight of the content-knowledge/KLA knowledge
- Strike the balance between
generic curriculum strategies and content knowledge
- Treat 'what to teach' (e.g.
experimental inquiry in science, hermeneutic interpretation in humanities,
logical thinking in mathematics, communication in languages etc.) as
important as 'how to teach' (e.g. co-operative learning, whole class
teaching, independent learning etc.)
- Be able to articulate flexibly
between generalization and specific context in curriculum practices
Lesson 4:
Be sensitive to adults' learning in the school context
- Handle power relationship and micro-politics
with care
- Value empathy, people skills as
well as instrumental and technical knowledge and skills
- Be alert to the dynamic and
intricate relationship between teacher participants: as supporters, change
agents, facilitators, collaborators, critical friends
Lesson 5:
Connecting curriculum strategies with evidence-based practices, critical
inquiries and collective reflection
- Facilitate the
'plan-act-observe-reflect' cycle
- Apply different methods of
inquiry and appropriate tools: classroom observation, analyzing pupils'
work, being sensitive to pupils' conversation inside and outside
classrooms
- Develop second-loop learning
among teachers - challenging teachers' assumptions for further
understanding and continuous improvement
Lesson 6:
Strategic dissemination of evidence-based pedagogical practices inside and
outside schools
- Facilitate whole school
curriculum development: vertical continuity and horizontal coherence of
the school curriculum
- Provide opportunities for
teachers' knowledge to go public: an important platform for empowering
teachers and fostering their ownership.
- Beware of both the 'content' and
'form' of experience sharing: 'thick' description, triangulated data,
critical inquiries and reflection that help the experiential understanding
of teaching and learning should be encouraged
Strike the
balance between the tension of 'sharing success for positive reinforcement' and
'labeling effect to become exclusive'
Lesson 7:
Capability building of curriculum developers as a means for knowledge
construction
- Knowledge for practice:
Acquisition of relevant and appropriate knowledge through reading
literature or seeking advice from consultants.
- Knowledge in practice:
Facilitating teachers to share their experience and knowledge in platform
such as sharing sessions is useful in externalizing the tacit knowledge
embedded in their practice. However, we should avoid sharing ignorance or
just sharing grievances in sharing sessions.
- Knowledge of practice: In the
process of generating new knowledge in context, individual teachers'
competence, confidence and risk-taking attitude, courage to problematize
the unproblematic are vital
- Integrating personal and
organizational knowledge for documentation and dissemination.
